The Near East was first largely unified under the Neo Assyrian Empire, then the Achaemenid Empire followed later by the Macedonian Empire and after this to some degree by the Iranian empires (namely the Parthian and Sassanid Empires), the Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire. They have a disproportionately large representation in the Jordanian parliament (10% of the Parliament) and hold important government portfolios, ambassadorial appointments abroad, and positions of high military rank. The schism led to the total isolation of the Persian-sphere Church of the East, and the adoption of much Alexandrian theology in the Antiochian sphere of influence. The Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East is the Anglican church responsible for the Middle East and North Africa. The Persian equivalent for Middle East is خاورمیانه (Khāvar-e miyāneh), the Hebrew is המזרח התיכון (hamizrach hatikhon), the Turkish is Orta Doğu and the Greek is Μέση Ανατολή (Mesi Anatoli). [citation needed] Moreover, Christians enjoy more economic and social opportunity in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan than elsewhere in the Middle East and North Africa. (also referred to as Pharaonism). Before the First World War, "Near East" was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while "Middle East" referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. p. 92 – 93, Aboona, H. (2008). Found insideNoted history writer Alan Axelrod breaks down the political and cultural stereotypes and helps readers not only understand what has happened in the last 100 years, but why it has happened, who was involved, and what might happen in the ... The Middle East (Arabic: الشرق الأوسط , ISO 233: ash-Sharq al-Awsat) is a geopolitical term that commonly refers to the region spanning the Levant, Arabian Peninsula, Anatolia (including modern Turkey and Cyprus), Egypt, Iran and Iraq.The term came into widespread usage as a replacement of the term Near East (as opposed to the Far East) beginning in the early 20th century. Tristam, Pierre. On the other hand, most American Muslims are black (African Americans or Sub-Saharan Africans) or of South Asian (Indian, Pakistani or Bangladeshi) origin. Organized by five principal themes of a regional overview, politics, economic development, social context, and international issues, Interpreting the Middle East provides a vibrant introduction to the Middle East that is compatible with ... The Sasanian Empire was the centre of the Nestorian Church. Assyrian Christians still made up the majority population in northern Iraq until the massacres conducted by Tamurlane in the 14th century, which also saw their ancient city of Assur finally abandoned after 4,000 years. Bush Administration: 1989â1993, George W. Bush Administration: 2001â2008. Hence the Assyrians lost both land and numbers. Found insideThis book argues that rapprochement between Tehran and Riyadh is possible and delves into the complexities of managing their long-standing conflict. The countries with significant Lebanese Christians include such countries as Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Cyprus, Dominican Republic, Germany, Greece, France, Mexico, New Zealand, Sweden, United Kingdom, United States and Venezuela among them. The Middle East, North Africa and South-Central Asia are in chaos. Some of the most well known Copts include Boutros Boutros-Ghali, the sixth Secretary-General of the United Nations; Sir Magdi Yacoub, the cardiothoracic surgeon; Hani Azer, the civil engineer; billionaire Fayez Sarofim, one of the richest men in the world; and Naguib Sawiris, the CEO of Orascom. Curtis E. Larsen. to foreign countries (mostly in Europe and the Americas) that actually began in the late 19th century and gained pace in the first quarter of the 20th century, especially during World War I and after the Turkish War of Independence. Many lived in the capital Baghdad and in Mosul prior to the Iraq War,[66] but most have since fled to northern Iraq, where Assyrian Christians form a majority in some districts. In like manner, Alexandria boasted many prominent theologians, including Athenagoras, Pantaenus, Clement, Origen, Dionysius, Gregory Thaumaturgus, Arius, Athanasius, Didymus the Blind, Cyril and Dioscorus, associated with School of Alexandria. Today the largest Middle Eastern Greek community resides in Cyprus and it numbers around 793,000 (2008). Syriac Christianity is most famous for its poet-theologians, Aphrahat, Ephrem, Narsai and Jacob of Serugh. Much back and forth led to the Council of Chalcedon of 451, which found a compromise that returned to a theology closer to that of Antioch, refereed by Rome, and condemned the monophysite theology of Eutyches. At that time, the United States had little interest in Middle East oil or in any political designs on the region. The United States' creeping involvement in the Middle East began later, during the Truman administration, and continued through the 21st century. In German the term Naher Osten (Near East) is still in common use (nowadays the term Mittlerer Osten is more and more common in press texts translated from English sources, albeit having a distinct meaning) and in Russian Ближний Восток or Blizhniy Vostok, Bulgarian Близкия Изток, Polish Bliski Wschód or Croatian Bliski istok (meaning Near East in all the four Slavic languages) remains as the only appropriate term for the region. However, some languages do have "Middle East" equivalents, such as the French Moyen-Orient, Swedish Mellanöstern, Spanish Oriente Medio or Medio Oriente, and the Italian Medio Oriente. Several Modern South Arabian languages such as Mehri and Soqotri are also spoken Yemen and Oman. Found insideThis text aims to fill a gap in the field of Middle Eastern political studies by combining international relations theory with concrete case studies. Antioch was also the place where the followers of Jesus were called "Christians" for the first time in history, as well as being the site of one of the earliest and oldest surviving churches, established by Saint Peter himself. The inhabitants of Salamis, for instance, had been forced to leave. Coordinates: .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}29°N 41°E / 29°N 41°E / 29; 41. The great majority of Aramaic speaking Christians are followers of the Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic Church, Syriac Orthodox Church, Ancient Church of the East, Assyrian Pentecostal Church and Assyrian Evangelical Church. [31] More recently, the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime in Iraq, the Syrian Civil War and the concomitant rise of ISIS have greatly increased violence against Christians in those countries. In Israel, Israeli Maronites together with smaller Aramaic-speaking Christian populations of Syriac Orthodox and Greek Catholic adherence are legally and ethnically classified as either Arameans or Arabs per their choice. As Goldhill explains in his introduction, ‘What is a good city?’, five questions motivate the book: How can a city be systematically planned and yet maintain a possibility of flexibility, change, and the wellbeing of citizens? [20], Middle East has also been rejected as a colonialist and racist term.[21]. In the course of the 20th century, Iran's large Christian minority, mainly the native Armenians and Assyrians who have a presence in Iran for millennia, took a heavy blow due to the Assyrian genocide (by Ottoman troops crossing the border), Armenian genocide (by Ottoman troops crossing the border), the Iranian Revolution and the Iran–Iraq War. [48], Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) refers to changes in the climate of the MENA region and the subsequent response, adaption and mitigation strategies of countries in the region. Amherst, NY: Cambria Press. In contrast, "Far East" referred to the countries of East Asia (e.g. [14] Cypriot Greeks constitute the only Christian majority state in the Middle East, although Lebanon was founded with a Christian majority in the first half of the 20th century. The accords ended the first intifada, established Palestiniansâ right to self-determination in Gaza and the West Bank, and established the Palestinian Authority. The 21st century war in Iraq brought another wave of Christian refugees, especially Assyrians and to a lesser extent Armenians. The region served as the intellectual and economic center of the Roman Empire and played an exceptionally important role due to its periphery on the Sassanid Empire. This third edition of Conflicts in the Middle East since 1945 analyzes the nature of conflict in the Middle East, with its racial, ethnic, political, cultural, religious and economic factors. Christians have established good relations with the royal family and the various Jordanian government officials and they have their own ecclesiastic courts for matters of personal status. After a 38-day air campaign and a 100-hour ground war, Kuwait was liberated. The French traveler Monsieur Tavernier noted that in 1662, Van and Urmia were purely Armenian; however, only a century later, another European traveler, Carsten Niebuhr, noted that both Turkomans and Kurds were involved in spreading disturbances. In 1840, Hortio Southgate visited these same regions, he was surprised by the "dramatic changes" and by "the decline in the number of the Armenians compared with the number of the new Kurdish settlers who then were still in the process of moving in". This is an essential introduction for anyone who wants an understanding of the Middle East and the origins of its conflicts. Arabic, with all its dialects, is the most widely spoken language in the Middle East, with Literary Arabic being official in all North African and in most West Asian countries. (2021, September 9). Copts, numbering around 10 million, constitute the single largest Christian community in the Middle East.[6][7][8][9][10][11][12]. Perhaps because of the influence of the Western press, the Arabic equivalent of Middle East (Arabic: الشرق الأوسط ash-Sharq al-Awsaṭ) has become standard usage in the mainstream Arabic press, comprising the same meaning as the term "Middle East" in North American and Western European usage. American, Italian, and French troops landed in Beirut that summer to mediate the exit of 6,000 PLO militants. Aidid was not captured. The Saint Maron Monastery was too close to Antioch, making the monks vulnerable to emperor Justinian II's persecution. Legendary accounts are of the evangelization of the East by Thomas (Mar Toma), Addai/Thaddaeus and Mari. There are also a very small proportion of Arab Christians and small numbers of Armenian, Kurdish, Iranian and Turcoman Christians. Tristam, Pierre. The 1986 Iran-Contra Affair revealed that President Ronald Reagan's administration had secretly negotiated arms-for-hostages deals with Iran, discrediting Reaganâs claim that he would not negotiate with terrorists. The Kebra Nagast also connects the Yemenite Queen of Sheba with the royal line of Axum. [note 1]. [44] Turkey ($1,028,897), Iran ($839,438) and Saudi Arabia ($589,531) had the largest economies in terms of GDP-PPP. As the Lebanese civil war raged, Israel invaded Lebanon for the second time, in June 1982. The exact number of Christians is uncertain because no official census has been made in Lebanon since 1932. Some scholars have followed hints in Eusebius and Jerome that Philip the Arab, the son of an Arab sheikh, may have been the first Christian Roman Emperor. [57] The MENA region is especially vulnerable to such impacts due to its arid and semi-arid environment, facing climatic challenges such as low rainfall, high temperatures and dry soil. Theodor Herzl: Old New Land. (AltNeuLand) First print Leipzig 1902. Brauer was indeed one of the most skilled ethnographs of the first half of the 20th century and wrote an important book on the Jews of Kurdistan" [Erich Brauer, The Jews of Kurdistan, First edition 1940, revised edition 1993, completed and edited par Raphael Patai, Wayne State University Press, Detroit]. From Antioch, where Christians were first so called, came Ignatius, Diodore of Tarsus, John Chrysostom, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Nestorius, Theodoret, John of Antioch, Severus of Antioch and Peter the Fuller, many of whom are associated with the School of Antioch. [22], The term Middle East has also been criticised as Eurocentric ("based on a British Western perception") by Hanafi (1998). Certainly, early Georgian liturgy does share a number of conspicuous features with that of Jerusalem. This seems to be more due to the war fatigue throughout the region rather than entirely due to religious differences. Regardless of its outcome, the Iraq War has had a transformative effect on the Middle East. There are currently also several million foreign Christian workers in the Gulf area, mostly from the Philippines, India, Sri Lanka and Indonesia. The Middle East is widely and most famously known as the Cradle of civilization. Many Lebanese Maronite Christians consider themselves of indigenous Phoenician ancestry, arguing that their presence predates the arrival of Arabs in the region. [25], Maronite tradition can be traced back to Saint Maron in the 4th century, the founder of national and ecclesiastical Maronitism. The deployment, lasting just three months, ended a brief civil war in Lebanon. "[43][44] According to Aboona, "the majorities, in particular the Kurds, rejected any form of coexistence" with Assyrians, and "in the eyes of the Kurds", the presence of Assyrian tribes in the midst of their own "settlements represented a serious challenge to their dominance of the region. During World War II, American troops were stationed in Iran to help transfer military supplies to the Soviet Union and protect Iranian oil. The capital Beirut also has a larger Christian population than Zahlé (in the city proper), though most belong to the Orthodox confession. The world's earliest civilizations, Mesopotamia (Sumer, Akkad, Assyria and Babylonia), ancient Egypt and Kish in the Levant, all originated in the Fertile Crescent and Nile Valley regions of the ancient Near East. In the big cities there are many ethnic Armenians and in the northeastern Al-Hasakah Governorate the majority of the Christians are ethnic Assyrians. [76], In Jordan, Christians constitute 6% of the population as of 2017 according to the Jordanian government. [citation needed] In the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. The Greek Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople stil today has his residence in Istanbul. Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: The Geoarchaeology of an Ancient Society University of Chicago Press, 1984. The operation had limited success. The economic structure of Middle Eastern nations are different in the sense that while some nations are heavily dependent on export of only oil and oil-related products (such as Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Kuwait), others have a highly diverse economic base (such as Cyprus, Israel, Turkey and Egypt). This exciting new edition of the successful textbook for students of Middle Eastern politics provides a highly relevant and comprehensive introduction to the complexities of a region in constant flux. As a further matter, recent studies confirmed the Lebanese (the Maronites especially) lineage to the Phoenicians/Canaanites by DNA genome study. Over the past four years, Hay’at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) has tried to transform itself from a faction of the Global Jihad movement into the de facto local military and governing power in north-west (NW) Syria. Due to it primarily being Arabic speaking, the Maghreb region of North Africa is sometimes included. This book's concise narrative and selection of primary-source documents make it an ideal introduction to U.S.-Middle East relations for students and for anyone with an interest in understanding the history behind today's events. [46], According to Adoona, "in the end, the independence of the Assyrian tribes was destroyed not directly by the Turks but by theİr Kurdİsh neighbours under Turkish auspices. Since the Hamas takeover of the Gaza Strip in 2007, anti-Christian attitudes have been on the increase. China Phone: +86 10 8457 8802 George H.W. Nine churches are officially recognized under Israel's confessional system, for the self-regulation of status issues, such as marriage and divorce. In the 6th century, Ethiopian military might conquered a large portion of Yemen, strengthening Christian concentration in southern Arabia. Syriac (Syrian//Syriac are etymologically derived from Assyrian) emerged as the standard Aramaic dialect of the three Assyrian border cities of Edessa, Nisibis and Arbela. Among the architects of the attacks on Americans in Somalia was a Saudi exile then living in Sudan and largely unknown in the United States: Osama bin Laden. The 47th edition of the SIPRI Yearbook analyses developments in 2015 in: -Security and conflicts -Military spending and armaments -Non-proliferation, arms control and disarmament The SIPRI Yearbook contains extensive annexes on the ... Other Western Iranic languages spoken in the region include Achomi, Daylami, Kurdish dialects, Semmani, Lurish, amongst many others. Because of the arid climate and heavy reliance on the fossil fuel industry, the Middle East is both a heavy contributor to climate change and a region expected to be severely negatively impacted by it. [25] There are also Syriac Orthodox, Syriac Catholic, Armenian Orthodox, Armenian Catholic, Assyrian Church of the East and Chaldean Catholic Church Christians. Some 80% of Christians residing permanently in Israel are Arabs, numbering at least 180,400 as of 2019. Russian is spoken by a large portion of the Israeli population, because of emigration in the late 1990s. The term "Middle East" has led to some confusion over its changing definitions. Americans felt the effects of that war through the 1973 Arab oil embargo, during which oil prices rocketed upward, contributing to a recession a year later. Acknowledgments Introduction: Public Opinion Research in the Arab and Muslim Middle East Part One Domestic Politics 1. They came into existence as a result of a schism within the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch due to the election of a Patriarch in 1724. Besides the political reasons there was also the "ideological conflict" between the two systems. The book truly illuminates American foreign policy regarding the Arab-Israeli conflict, but at the same time it offers thoughtful analysis and interpretation of what diplomacy and American policy is all about. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/us-and-middle-east-since-1945-2353681. "No. 1 in the series." "Contents: "Introduction - "(Michael Curtis). "PART ONE "- "ARABS AND JEWS IN THE MIDDLE EAST. Israel and Palestine: The Political Use of Ethics "(Ben Halpern). This argument revolved around claims by Alexandrians over alleged theological extremism by Antiochians, and its battleground was the Roman capital, Constantinople, originating from its bishop's, Nestorius's, teaching on the nature of Christ. The study published in the American Journal of Human Genetics shows that present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a Canaanite-related population, which therefore implies substantial genetic continuity in the Levant since at least the Bronze Age.[84]. 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